Applied Thermal Engineering
Available online 7 April 2023
, 120543
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Abstract
This paper evaluated the dynamic response of the compression ignition engine's performance parameters and emissions when water was injected into the intake manifold at different water ratios. This technique effectively decreased NOx emissions and mitigated knock intensity when the engine ran at dual fuel mode. With a WR=143%, NOx emissions were reduced by 52% at 100% diesel operation, whereas with a WR=132%, NOx emissions were reduced by 57% at dual fuel mode operation. The knock intensity decreased from 1.52 V to 1.12 V using a water ratio of 133% when the engine operated with a substitution of diesel by LPG of 50% on a mass basis. The results also revealed that water injection increased HC emissions from 220±1 ppm to 430±1 ppm, whereas the Particle Matter (PM2.5) increased from 42.4 to 127.3 at 100% diesel operation. When the engine operated at dual fuel mode PM2.5 increased from 42.4 to 84.3 . Finally, two First Order plus Dead Time models were deduced through the system identification technique to simulate the dynamic response of Knock Intensity when a step change of water ratio was made. These models play a key role in tuning system controllers for knock suppression.
Introduction
Recently, EU Parliament voted to ban new internal combustion engines (ICE) cars and vans from 2035 to face climate change and simultaneously boost the development of electric vehicles. However, the world has around 1.2 billion cars and 380 million commercial vehicles; indeed, the land and the marine transport industry is powered mainly by ICEs, with a participation of approximately 99.9 % [1]. The heavy-duty power demand along with the technical limitations of the battery technologies and charging infrastructure limit the rapid adoption of battery electric vehicles around the globe [2]. These backgrounds allow concluding that ICEs will still play a key role in different industry sectors for the next decades. The road to the called zero-emission is long; therefore, efforts must also be conducted to optimize engine efficiency and minimize pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions.
Alternative fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), including biopropane [3], are widely studied as substitute of diesel in compression ignition engines. In particular, LPG usage is more attractive since LPG can be stored at atmospheric temperature and low-pressure ranges of 0.7- 0.8 MPa, thus facilitating its transportation [4]. In addition to its high low heating value, LPG can be easily produced from the petroleum refining process. Among other benefits, the dual-fuel operation with LPG reduces particle matter and NOx emissions. However, at light and intermediate loads, LPG-diesel dual-fuel engines produce high CO, HC, and poor thermal efficiency [5]. The latter suggests that dual-fuel operation is attractive when engines operate at full load; however, under this condition, the injection of higher amounts of LPG is restricted because of the appearance of knock. The properties of the compressed mixture composed of pilot diesel fuel, LPG, air, and residual gas at full load increase the ignition delay of the pilot diesel [6]. The increase of ignition delay implies that the pilot diesel requires higher temperatures to auto-ignite, thus increasing the average temperature of the engine and the rate of pressure rise[7]. Additionally, the high temperature at high loads promotes the self-ignition of the gaseous fuels increasing the knock tendency [8]. To overcome this drawback, numerous techniques are reported in the literature for controlling knock and NOx formation in diesel engines. Strategies such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), the use of catalytic converters, and finally water injection (WI) have been proposed. The EGR strategy is the most investigated technology but with the disadvantage of increasing particulate matter (PM) emissions [9]. The catalytic converters are designed to work close to the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio; however, the diesel engine runs at lean conditions, making it less effective in reducing NOx emissions. Moreover, this method is expensive due to the design of the catalytic converter [10]. A third option is injecting water into the combustion chamber to reduce the charge temperature, thus reducing the NOx emissions, and suppressing the knock phenomenon [11].
The advantages of using WI in diesel engines are widely known; indeed, there are different strategies for injecting water into the combustion chamber. For example, the Direct Water Injection (DWI) technique injects the water into the combustion chamber [12]. In the Water-diesel emulsion fuel (WDE) technique, water is added to the fuel as an emulsion of water in standard diesel with two surfactants, Span 80 and Tween 80, as emulsifiers [13]. In the Indirect water injection (IWI) technique, water is injected into the air inlet port, generating water evaporation before entering the combustion chamber. The most outstanding advantage of this technique is its low cost and easy implementation. Regardless of the strategy chosen, the amount of water injected into the combustion chamber must be controlled to avoid misfiring or unstable combustion while ensuring low NOx emissions and knock-free operation when engines operate in dual-fuel mode. The experimental evidence suggests the successful application of the WI technique requires a dynamic water injection which must be adjusted as a function of the engine load [14], [15].
The performance of control strategies requires experimental measurements of the dynamic response of the controlled variables. There are numerous control strategies implemented to control, for example, the air path in a turbocharged diesel engine [16], the pressure boost in a two-staged turbocharged diesel [17], and the NOx emissions using Fuzzy Logic Controllers [18]. However, according to the literature review, no research has been conducted to assess the dynamic response of knock intensity, engine performance parameters, and pollutant emissions when LPG and water are simultaneously injected into a compression ignition engine. This paper closes this gap by characterizing the interaction between the Water fuel ratio (WR) and the substitution of diesel by LPG on the dynamic responses.
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the experimental setup used in this work, reporting the main characteristics of the engine test cell and the water and LPG injection systems. The experimental procedure and the dynamic system identification methodology are described in detail. This section also includes the mathematical definition of relevant performance parameters of engines, emphasizing key control concepts. The dynamic response over time of these parameters, the dynamic response of pollutant emissions, and the knock index due to water injection are evaluated in Section 3. The First Order Plus Dead Time Models of the knock intensity index response at the start and end of water injection are reported. These models may be used to design control strategies to mitigate knock, improve engine efficiency and decrease greenhouse gases and pollutant emissions. This section reports the impact of water and LPG injection on fine Particle Matter emissions (PM2.5). Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions drawn from this work.
Section snippets
Description of the engine test cell
A marine turbocharged diesel engine was adapted to inject water into the inlet manifold and operate in dual fuel mode with LPG. A summary of the engine specifications and a schematic diagram of the engine test cell are given in Table 1 and Fig. 1, respectively. The engine was coupled to a 150 kW Froude-type hydraulic dynamometer to apply load to the engine. Engine throttle and brake load were manually controlled from the control cabin. The LPG used was composed of a fuel blend of 90% C3H8 and
Brake-specific fuel diesel consumption and Brake fuel conversion efficiency
This section assesses the combined effect of WR and diesel substitution by LPG on the Bfce and Bsdfc of the engine. An uncertainty analysis and an Analysis of Variance with random factors were carried out to detect differences. An overall analysis of Fig. 3, Fig. 4 suggests that there is no significant differences in the Bfce regardless of the percentage of WI with the engine running either with diesel as fuel or at dual fuel mode with LPG. However, these figures reveal a marked decrease in the
Conclusions
This paper evaluated the dynamic response of the performance parameters and emissions of a turbocharged-compression ignition engine running with LPG in dual fuel mode and 100% diesel at different WRs. Similarly, the dynamic response of knock intensity was evaluated when the engine ran at dual fuel mode with a diesel substitution by LPG in mass fraction equal to Z=50% . The most important conclusions derived from this work are outlined as follows.
- •
Diesel substitution by LPG decreased the Bfce by
Uncited reference
[19].
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support granted by the Agencia Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrollo (ANID) through the project Fondecyt Iniciacion N°11190447.
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FAQs
What is the effect of variation in LPG composition on emissions and performance in a dual fuel diesel engine? ›
Variation in LPG composition caused a variation in the exhaust emissions, the exhaust gas temperatures and the fuel conversion efficiency in dual fuel operation at the same mass ratio obtained. As higher butane content lead to lower NOx levels while a higher propane content reduces CO levels.
Can you run a diesel engine on LPG? ›LPG fuel can be used as gas or liquid phase in diesel engines. In the gas phase, it is fumigated in the air intake and the LPG-air mixture is formed in the intake manifold [19,20,21,22]. When LPG is the liquid phase, it mixes with diesel fuel under higher pressure than 0.5 MPa.
What are the advantages of dual fuel diesel LPG operation compared to diesel only and spark ignition SI engines? ›The dual fuel operation has advantages compared to diesel equivalents and Spark ignition (SI) engines, potentially the thermal output is higher due to faster burning and lower emissions, high power density, strong sources of ignition providing more reliability [20].
What is the effect of hydrogen diesel dual fuel usage on performance emissions and diesel combustion in diesel engines? ›Using hydrogen in diesel engines as dual fuel provides lower PM emission due to a more homogeneous charge. It can be easily concluded that the reduction in CO2, CO, HC and PM emissions is more prominent than HC fuels.
How efficient is LPG compared to diesel? ›Using mid values' the combustion value of Diesel is 10600 Kcal/kg, and of LPG is 11400 Kcal/Kg. Taking the efficiency into account, 1 Kg of diesel (1.22 Lit) will supply 9010 Kcal by a premium burner. 1 Kg of LPG will supply 10260 Kcal.
Is LPG more efficient than diesel? ›LPG is good for the environment since it is a cleaner-burning fuel that emits 14% less CO2 emissions than gasoline automobiles and 10% fewer than diesel cars. It also emits half as much nitrogen oxides as gasoline and a quarter as many as diesel.
What are all the disadvantages of LPG over gasoline gas a motor fuel? ›Disadvantages of LPG
LPG require special fuel feed system. The storage tank is heavy. Low energy density. The LPG is heavier than air, so it gets collected at the lowest spot in the case of leakage, it causes suffocation.
I'm told LPG is actually very good for turbo cars. Not only does it cool the charge as it vapourises, but it effectively has a higher octane than petrol and so is less prone to knocking.
Why shouldn't you use diesel in a gas engine? ›That's because gasoline engines cannot easily combust diesel fuel. Since diesel fuel is very low in octane, depending on the amount of contamination, the engine may run rough or start knocking. At that point, your best bet is to call a roadside assistance service to get towed to a nearby auto shop.
What is the main disadvantage of dual fuel system? ›Generally speaking, the main downsides of a dual fuel range are their cost and installation. These types of stoves tend to be more expensive than their all-gas or all-electric counterparts, so it's important to consider this and compare ranges before making a purchase.
What are the disadvantages of dual fuel engines? ›
Existing dual-fuel conversions suffer from major increases in carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions and loss of fuel efficiency at light loads. This is because they operate unthrottled, so that the air-fuel mixture becomes leaner as the load is reduced.
What are the three advantages of using LPG as fuels? ›1) They have low calorific value. 2) They can be transported easily through pipelines. 3) They are clean fuels and do not give smoke when burnt.
What is the effect of pilot fuel quantity on the performance and emission of a dual producer gas diesel engine? ›Experimental results show that the increasing amount of pilot fuel improves thermal efficiency and reduces the CO emission at low engine load conditions. However, the diesel saving is always decreased when the pilot fuel quantity exceeds its optimum condition.
What is the biggest drawback of using hydrogen fuel? ›- Hydrogen Energy is Expensive. ...
- Storage Complications. ...
- It's Not the Safest Source of Energy. ...
- Tricky to Move Around. ...
- It is Dependent on Fossil fuels. ...
- Hydrogen Energy Cannot Sustain the Population.
The primary advantage of a gas turbine engine is its power to weight ratio.
Do you get better mpg with LPG? ›The bigger the tank, the further you can drive on LPG. You do however get 10-15% less range than using petrol, but this is offset by the lower price you pay at the pump. 35 MPG works out to 8.1 litres per 100 kilometres or 62 miles. With a 64-litre tank, you'll theoretically be able to drive 434 miles.
Is LPG less polluting than diesel? ›LPG emits less carbon dioxide than petrol, and less nitrogen oxide and fewer particulates than diesel.
Why is LPG considered a better? ›LPG is considered as a better fuel than coal because it has a higher calorific value, while burning it does not product any smoke.
How much more efficient is LPG? ›In terms of fuel costs, LPG costs a little more than half the price of petrol or diesel, but the fuel economy is about 20-25% lower.
What is the future of LPG? ›Major retailer to phase out LPG stations by 2024 – replaced by EV charging points. Owners of Autogas (LPG) converted classics and modern classics will have a harder time filling up within the next two years as the Motor Fuels Group announces it is to phase out all its LPG pumps by 2024.
Why LPG is a cleaner fuel than diesel? ›
LPG is cleaner than petrol and diesel because it is composed of predominantly simple hydrocarbon compounds. Compared with emissions from vehicles on petrol and diesel, emissions from LPG-driven vehicles contain lower levels of hydrocarbon compounds, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, air toxics, and particulates.
What is the downside to LPG? ›It produces 10% less power, compared to petrol, on the same engine. Its Ignition temperature is higher than that of petrol, it leads to 5% less lifetime of valves. An efficient cooling system is required, since same is used to provide the heat to the LPG vaporizer (convert liquid into Gas).
What are the bad things about LPG? ›Why Is Liquified Petroleum Gas Harmful? LPG is an asphyxiant gas that can cause unconsciousness and/or death if oxygen levels are sufficiently reduced. May displace oxygen and cause rapid suffocation. LPG is also an extremely flammable gas and is a gas under pressure; which may explode if heated.
What are the principal dangers of LPG? ›LPG vapours can run for long distances along the ground and can collect in drains or basements. When the gas meets a source of ignition it can burn or explode. Cylinders can explode if involved in a fire. LPG can cause cold burns to the skin and it can act as an asphyxiant at high concentrations.
What is the best compression ratio for LPG? ›The ideal compression ratio is in the 12.5- to 12.7- to-1 range. Propane is also a high-octane fuel with a research rating of 110 octane and a pump octane rating of 104.
Does an engine run hotter on LPG? ›An LPG engine will heat up faster due to the cylinder head temperature, even with a cold engine. Petrol engines take a while to warm up, so this is a good thing for engines. LPG is high octane and runs cleaner through the engine.
Can a V8 run on LPG? ›Menu for this page. Big Block and small Block V8 LPG conversion. Almost all American V8s will run happily on LPG. And the savings mean you can enjoy driving the car you like more often, if not all the time.
Will 1 gallon of gas hurt a diesel engine? ›Diesel fuel is also considered a lubricant, so if you use regular gas when you are not supposed to, it does not allow the fuel injector pump to be properly lubricated. Gasoline detonates earlier, so when it is wrongly added to a diesel vehicle, it can cause engine knocking, misfiring, and damage.
What happens if you put 2 gallons of gas in a diesel engine? ›This means the diesel fuel will prematurely ignite in the diesel engine, which can lead to engine damage. Gasoline contamination can also damage the fuel pump and mess up diesel injectors. This happens because of a drop in lubrication. Simply speaking, gasoline is a solvent while diesel is an oil.
Which is worse diesel in gas or gas in diesel? ›As bad as that situation may be, the opposite problem – pouring gasoline into a diesel tank – would be far worse. Because of gasoline's high combustion tendencies, it would ignite much sooner than diesel fuel would.
Is a dual fuel generator better than a diesel generator? ›
Increased Fuel-Efficiency
Traditional dual fuel generators typically run 75% on natural gas and about 25% on diesel mix. Since natural gas produces more power per unit and burns for longer, you'll increase efficiency compared to a single-fuel diesel generator.
Perhaps the biggest disadvantage of a dual fuel cooking range is its cost. These appliances offer a host of superior functions, but those functions come at a high price. Dual fuel ranges often cost hundreds or thousands of dollars more than traditional gas or electric ranges.
Is it better to run a dual fuel generator on gas or propane? ›MORE EFFICIENT + COST EFFECTIVE: Sure, propane fuel costs more up front, but it also contains more than TWICE the energy of gasoline. A cubic foot of propane = 2,516 BTUs, compared to a cubic foot of gas = 1,030 BTUs. This means propane gas burns longer, lasts longer, and is technically cheaper!
Why 2 stroke engines are not efficient? ›Two-stroke engines are not quite efficient in combustion because of which they have less mileage. The incomplete combustion is one of the reasons they produce less mileage and because of the other stroke that occurs that unburnt fuel is also passed out to the exhaust increasing the inefficiency even more.
Is dual fuel better than electric? ›Duel Fuel. If you're looking for efficient, even heating of the food inside your oven, look for a dual fuel range. While gas cooktops offer the most powerful cooking experience, electric ovens provide stronger, more even heating power for your baking needs.
Is there a car that uses both petrol and diesel? ›Bi-fuel vehicles have the capability to switch back and forth from the gasoline to the other fuel, manually or automatically. A related concept is the duel-fuel vehicle which must burn both fuels in combination. Diesel engines converted to use gaseous fuels fall into this class due to the different ignition system.
Is LPG more environmentally friendly than oil? ›Recognised as a low carbon alternative fuel, it emits 33% less CO2 than coal and 12% less than oil.
Why does LPG produce more heat than other fuels? ›LPG, due to its higher calorific value, produces more heat per unit mass on burning.
What is the best air-fuel mixture ratio for reducing emissions and improving performance and fuel mileage? ›Reducing emissions: Keeping the air–fuel mixture near the stoichiometric ratio of 14.7:1 (for gasoline engines) allows the catalytic converter to operate at maximum efficiency.
What is the best air-fuel mixture ratio for reducing emissions and improving performance? ›For optimum fuel economy 16-17:1 is usually best, leaner than that and the car will begin to misfire. Maximum power is usually found between 12-14:1, but this may be too lean for safety on many engines. For maximum reliability at full power, air fuel ratios from 10.5-12.5:1 are considered best, depending on the engine.
What is the efficiency of dual-fuel engine? ›
The thermal efficiency of the dual-fuel engine is 36%, so that the availability of gas at a price 10% less than that of fuel oil makes it worthy of consideration.
Why not use hydrogen for cars? ›The vast majority of car companies have turned away from hydrogen because of the high density of energy consumed in its production, as well as poor funding and backing from governments, which is stopping the hydrogen revolution from expanding ever more.
What are the two main problems with hydrogen fuel? ›The two prime dangers from fuel cell and hydrogen-powered vehicles are the danger of electrical shock and the flammability of the fuel. Fuel cells power vehicles by electro-chemically combining hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen (O2) from the surrounding air into water (H20) and electrical energy.
Why is using hydrogen as fuel bad? ›While not as bad as using electricity generated using fossil fuels, the process still releases huge amounts of carbon – each tonne of hydrogen produced releases eleven tonnes of CO2, equivalent to driving 72,000 km in a passenger car.
Why gas turbines are not used in automobiles? ›Because gas turbine engines operate most efficiently at constant output speed (i.e., constant rpm), they have not performed well as power units in automobiles and other devices requiring variable-speed shaft output.
Why don't we use gas turbine engines? ›Principally because gas turbines have poor part load fuel efficiency, and cars spend a majority of their time at part load. Gas turbines require a compressor to compress the inlet air before combustion. The function of the compressor is just like the compression stroke of a piston engine.
Can an Abrams tank use diesel fuel? ›The Abrams can sip diesel, gasoline, or marine diesel for fuel, but it is optimized to run on jet fuel.
What are the emission factors for LPG combustion? ›Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions are all produced during LPG combustion. Nearly all of the fuel carbon (99.5 percent) in LPG is converted to CO2 during the combustion process. This conversion is relatively independent of firing configuration.
What is the effect of hydroxy gas addition on performance and exhaust emissions in variable compression spark ignition engine? ›The fuel required to produce unit power is reduced with hydroxy gas addition to gasoline-air mixture due to increase in the rate of combustion and combustion efficiency. Also the efficiency of the engine is increased as the calorific value of the fuel is increased with hydroxy gas addition to air-gasoline mixture.
Does LPG conversion affect performance? ›In terms of performance, LPG affects the engine performance the least while CNG reduces engine power by about 10%.
What are the two flaws in dual-fuel? ›
Operating with a lean air-fuel ratio, they can also achieve much lower emissions (especially of NOx and particulate matter (PM)) than a pure diesel. Existing dual-fuel conversions suffer from major increases in carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions and loss of fuel efficiency at light loads.
What are the factors affecting combustion in dual-fuel engine? ›The main factors that influ- ence the occurrence of these knock are the pilot quantity, delay period, load, speed, gas flow rate and time interval for secondary ignition. Increasing the pilot fuel and reducing primary fuel reduces the knocking phenomena in dual-fuel engines.
Does LPG reduce CO2 emissions? ›LPG-fuelled vehicles emit 12% less CO2 than petrol cars through the “Tank-to-Wheels” cycle. The 4.5 Million vehicles currently running on LPG in Europe represent at least 1.4 Million tons of CO2 savings on a yearly basis. The LPG-fuelled car industry has a significant growth potential.
What is the combustion reaction of LPG? ›Equation for Incomplete Combustion of Propane-LPG
The equation for incomplete combustion of propane is: 2 C3H8 + 9 O2 → 4 CO2 + 2 CO + 8 H2O + Heat.
| Description | Butane | Propane |
|---|---|---|
| Vapor pressure (kPa) | 210 | 830 |
| Boiling point (°C) | −0.5 | −42 |
| Octane number | 92 | 105 |
| Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | 45.72 | 46.30 |
The increase in compression ratio and ethanol blended fuel improves combustion and improves the performance of engine. Further there is a significant decrease in hydrocarbon (HC), Carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke emissions however there is an increase in Nitrogen oxides (NOx).
What are the main components of diesel engine exhaust gas emissions that may cause health problems for humans? ›- Carbon (soot)
- Carbon monoxide.
- Carbon dioxide.
- Oxygen.
- Water vapour.
- Ammonia.
- Nitrogen.
- Oxides of nitrogen (e.g., nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide)
High altitude affects the combustion of fuel in the internal combustion engine (ICE) through the decrease in oxygen supply. Since the air density is lower at high altitude, there is a smaller amount of oxygen in a given volume of air. Lower concentration of oxygen in the air will decrease vehicle performance.
How can we increase the efficiency of LPG? ›- 01/7World Environment Day: How to use LPG cylinder efficiently. ...
- 02/7Use a pressure cooker. ...
- 03/7Keep the utensils clean. ...
- 04/7Always measure your ingredients. ...
- 05/7Avoid open vessel cooking. ...
- 06/7Regular cleaning of burner. ...
- 07/7Place pot to cover flame.
Explanation: The major disadvantage of LPG is the reduction in the life of the engine and less power compared to gasoline. The other disadvantage of LPG is a special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum gas (LPG).
What is the major disadvantage of LPG? ›
It produces 10% less power, compared to petrol, on the same engine. Its Ignition temperature is higher than that of petrol, it leads to 5% less lifetime of valves. An efficient cooling system is required, since same is used to provide the heat to the LPG vaporizer (convert liquid into Gas).